Motivation, Maslow's Hierarchy and Individual Differences

Motivation is the inner drive that starts, directs and sustains behaviour.

• Intrinsic motivation – doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction (a child reads because she loves stories).
• Extrinsic motivation – doing it for an external reward or to avoid punishment (marks, prizes, praise).

Over-using rewards for tasks students already enjoy can reduce intrinsic motivation (the over-justification effect).

Theories:

• Maslow – unmet basic needs block learning.
• Attribution theory (Bernard Weiner) – students explain success/failure by ability, effort, task difficulty or luck. Teachers should encourage attributing failure to effort and strategy (controllable) rather than lack of ability.
• Mindset (Carol Dweck) – a growth mindset (ability can be developed) leads to persistence; a fixed mindset leads to avoiding challenge. Praise effort and strategies, not "being clever".
• Achievement motivation (McClelland) – need for achievement, affiliation, power.
• Self-efficacy (Bandura) – belief in one's capability to succeed at a task.

Practical strategies: clear goals, relevant examples from students' lives, variety, challenge at the right level, specific feedback, choice, a warm classroom climate and opportunities for success.

Students differ in intelligence, aptitude, interests, attitudes, learning pace, prior knowledge, socio-economic background, language and personality. Causes: heredity and environment.

• Alfred Binet (with Théodore Simon, 1905) developed the first practical intelligence test.
• IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100 (William Stern's ratio; popularised by Lewis Terman's Stanford–Binet). Example: MA 12, CA 10 → IQ 120.
• Charles Spearman – two-factor theory: general intelligence (g) and specific abilities (s).
• Howard Gardner – Multiple Intelligences (1983): linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist (added later).
• Robert Sternberg – triarchic theory: analytical, creative, practical intelligence.
• Daniel Goleman popularised emotional intelligence.

Catering for differences: differentiated instruction (content, process, product), flexible grouping, varied teaching methods, remedial and enrichment work, and assessment in multiple forms.